Listening - Active Listening

Active Listening

Hear What People are Really Saying

Improve your active listening techniques,
with James Manktelow & Amy Carlson.

Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How well you listen has a major impact on your job effectiveness, and on the quality of your relationships with others.
For instance:

• We listen to obtain information.
• We listen to understand.
• We listen for enjoyment.
• We listen to learn.

Given all this listening we do, you would think we'd be good at it! In fact most of us are not, and research suggests that we remember between 25 percent and 50 percent of what we hear. That means that when you talk to your boss, colleagues, customers or spouse for 10 minutes, they pay attention to less than half of the conversation. This is dismal!
Turn it around and it reveals that when you are receiving directions or being presented with information, you aren't hearing the whole message either. You hope the important parts are captured in your 25-50 percent, but what if they're not?
Clearly, listening is a skill that we can all benefit from improving. By becoming a better listener, you will improve your productivity, as well as your ability to influence, persuade and negotiate. What's more, you'll avoid conflict and misunderstandings. All of these are necessary for workplace success!

Tip:

Good communication skills require a high level of self-awareness. By understanding your personal style of communicating, you will go a long way towards creating good and lasting impressions with others.

About Active Listening

The way to improve your listening skills is to practice "active listening." This is where you make a conscious effort to hear not only the words that another person is saying but, more importantly, try to understand the complete message being sent.
In order to do this you must pay attention to the other person very carefully.
You cannot allow yourself to become distracted by whatever else may be going on around you, or by forming counter arguments that you'll make when the other person stops speaking. Nor can you allow yourself to get bored, and lose focus on what the other person is saying. All of these contribute to a lack of listening and understanding.

Tip:

If you're finding it particularly difficult to concentrate on what someone is saying, try repeating their words mentally as they say them – this will reinforce their message and help you stay focused.

To enhance your listening skills, you need to let the other person know that you are listening to what he or she is saying. To understand the importance of this, ask yourself if you've ever been engaged in a conversation when you wondered if the other person was listening to what you were saying. You wonder if your message is getting across, or if it's even worthwhile continuing to speak. It feels like talking to a brick wall and it's something you want to avoid.
Acknowledgement can be something as simple as a nod of the head or a simple "uh huh." You aren't necessarily agreeing with the person, you are simply indicating that you are listening. Using body language and other signs to acknowledge you are listening also reminds you to pay attention and not let your mind wander.
You should also try to respond to the speaker in a way that will both encourage him or her to continue speaking, so that you can get the information if you need. While nodding and "uh huhing" says you're interested, an occasional question or comment to recap what has been said communicates that you understand the message as well.

Becoming an Active Listener

There are five key active listening techniques. They all help you ensure that you hear the other person, and that the other person knows you are hearing what they say.

1. Pay Attention

Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. Recognize that non-verbal communication also "speaks" loudly.

• Look at the speaker directly.
• Put aside distracting thoughts.
• Don't mentally prepare a rebuttal!
• Avoid being distracted by environmental factors. For example, side conversations.
• "Listen" to the speaker's body language  .

2. Show That You're Listening

Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention.

• Nod occasionally.
• Smile and use other facial expressions.
• Note your posture and make sure it is open and inviting.
• Encourage the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like yes, and uh huh.

3. Provide Feedback

Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. As a listener, your role is to understand what is being said. This may require you to reflect what is being said and ask questions.

• Reflect what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is," and "Sounds like you are saying," are great ways to reflect back.
• Ask questions to clarify certain points. "What do you mean when you say." "Is this what you mean?"
• Summarize the speaker's comments periodically.

Tip:

If you find yourself responding emotionally to what someone said, say so, and ask for more information: "I may not be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you just said is XXX; is that what you meant?"

4. Defer Judgment

Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full understanding of the message.

• Allow the speaker to finish each point before asking questions.
• Don't interrupt with counter arguments.

5. Respond Appropriately

Active listening is a model for respect and understanding. You are gaining information and perspective. You add nothing by attacking the speaker or otherwise putting him or her down.

• Be candid, open, and honest in your response.
• Assert your opinions respectfully.
• Treat the other person in a way that you think he or she would want to be treated.

Key Points

It takes a lot of concentration and determination to be an active listener. Old habits are hard to break, and if your listening skills are as bad as many people's are, then there's a lot of habit-breaking to do!
Be deliberate with your listening and remind yourself frequently that your goal is to truly hear what the other person is saying. Set aside all other thoughts and behaviors and concentrate on the message. Ask questions, reflect, and paraphrase to ensure you understand the message. If you don't, then you'll find that what someone says to you and what you hear can be amazingly different!
Start using active listening techniques today to become a better communicator, improve your workplace productivity, and develop better relationships.

http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm

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Listening - 10 Steps To Effective Listening

10 Steps To Effective Listening

Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

Talking to someone while they scan the room, study a computer screen, or gaze out the window is like trying to hit a moving target. How much of the person’s divided attention you are actually getting? Fifty percent? Five percent? If the person were your child you might demand, “Look at me when I’m talking to you,” but that’s not the sort of thing we say to a lover, friend or colleague.
In most Western cultures, eye contact is considered a basic ingredient of effective communication. When we talk, we look each other in the eye. That doesn’t mean that you can’t carry on a conversation from across the room, or from another room, but if the conversation continues for any length of time, you (or the other person) will get up and move. The desire for better communication pulls you together.
Do your conversational partners the courtesy of turning to face them. Put aside papers, books, the phone and other distractions. Look at them, even if they don’t look at you. Shyness, uncertainty, shame, guilt, or other emotions, along with cultural taboos, can inhibit eye contact in some people under some circumstances. Excuse the other guy, but stay focused yourself.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.

Now that you’ve made eye contact, relax. You don’t have to stare fixedly at the other person. You can look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important thing is to be attentive. The dictionary says that to “attend” another person means to:

• be present
• give attention
• apply or direct yourself
• pay attention
• remain ready to serve

Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise. In addition, try not to focus on the speaker’s accent or speech mannerisms to the point where they become distractions. Finally, don’t be distracted by your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.

Step 3: Keep an open mind.

Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you. If what she says alarms you, go ahead and feel alarmed, but don’t say to yourself, “Well, that was a stupid move.” As soon as you indulge in judgmental bemusements, you’ve compromised your effectiveness as a listener.
Listen without jumping to conclusions. Remember that the speaker is using language to represent the thoughts and feelings inside her brain. You don’t know what those thoughts and feelings are and the only way you’ll find out is by listening.
Don’t be a sentence-grabber. Occasionally my partner can’t slow his mental pace enough to listen effectively, so he tries to speed up mine by interrupting and finishing my sentences. This usually lands him way off base, because he is following his own train of thought and doesn’t learn where my thoughts are headed. After a couple of rounds of this, I usually ask, “Do you want to have this conversation by yourself, or do you want to hear what I have to say?” I wouldn’t do that with everyone, but it works with him.

Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.

Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated. Whether a literal picture, or an arrangement of abstract concepts, your brain will do the necessary work if you stay focused, with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches, concentrate on, and remember, key words and phrases.
When it’s your turn to listen, don’t spend the time planning what to say next. You can’t rehearse and listen at the same time. Think only about what the other person is saying.
Finally, concentrate on what is being said, even if it bores you. If your thoughts start to wander, immediately force yourself to refocus.

Step 5: Don’t interrupt and don’t impose your “solutions.”

Children used to be taught that it’s rude to interrupt. I’m not sure that message is getting across anymore. Certainly the opposite is being modeled on the majority of talk shows and reality programs, where loud, aggressive, in-your-face behavior is condoned, if not encouraged.
Interrupting sends a variety of messages. It says:

• “I’m more important than you are.”
• “What I have to say is more interesting, accurate or relevant.”
• “I don’t really care what you think.”
• “I don’t have time for your opinion.”
• “This isn’t a conversation, it’s a contest, and I’m going to win.”

We all think and speak at different rates. If you are a quick thinker and an agile talker, the burden is onyouto relax your pace for the slower, more thoughtful communicator—or for the guy who has trouble expressing himself.
When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from suggesting solutions. Most of us don’t want your advice anyway. If we do, we’ll ask for it. Most of us prefer to figure out our own solutions. We need you to listen and help us do that. Somewhere way down the line, if you are absolutely bursting with a brilliant solution, at least get the speaker’s permission. Ask, “Would you like to hear my ideas?”

Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

When you don’t understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it to you. But rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then say something like, “Back up a second. I didn’t understand what you just said about…”

Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.

At lunch, a colleague is excitedly telling you about her trip to Vermont and all the wonderful things she did and saw. In the course of this chronicle, she mentions that she spent some time with a mutual friend. You jump in with, “Oh, I haven’t heard from Alice in ages. How is she?” and, just like that, discussion shifts to Alice and her divorce, and the poor kids, which leads to a comparison of custody laws, and before you know it an hour is gone and Vermont is a distant memory.
This particular conversational affront happens all the time. Our questions lead people in directions that have nothing to do with where they thought they were going. Sometimes we work our way back to the original topic, but very often we don’t.
When you notice that your question has led the speaker astray, take responsibility for getting the conversation back on track by saying something like, “It was great to hear about Alice, but tell me more about your adventure in Vermont.”

Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses sadness, joyful when she expresses joy, fearful when she describes her fears—and convey those feelings through your facial expressions and words—then your effectiveness as a listener is assured. Empathy is the heart and soul of good listening.
To experience empathy, you have to put yourself in the other person’s place and allow yourself to feel what it is like to be her at that moment. This is not an easy thing to do. It takes energy and concentration. But it is a generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates communication like nothing else does.

Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback.

Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by reflecting the speaker’s feelings. “You must be thrilled!” “What a terrible ordeal for you.” “I can see that you are confused.” If the speaker’s feelings are hidden or unclear, then occasionally paraphrase the content of the message. Or just nod and show your understanding through appropriate facial expressions and an occasional well-timed “hmmm” or “uh huh.”

Step 10: Pay attention to what isn’t said—to nonverbal cues.

If you exclude email, the majority of direct communication is probably nonverbal. We glean a great deal of information about each other without saying a word. Even over the telephone, you can learn almost as much about a person from the tone and cadence of her voice than from anything she says. When I talk to my best friend, it doesn’t matter what we chat about, if I hear a lilt and laughter in her voice, I feel reassured that she’s doing well.
Face to face with a person, you can detect enthusiasm, boredom, or irritation very quickly in the expression around the eyes, the set of the mouth, the slope of the shoulders. These are clues you can’t ignore. When listening, remember that words convey only a fraction of the message.

 www.forbes.com/sites/womensmedia/2012/11/09/10-steps-to-effective-listening/

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Grammar - Count Nouns vs. Non-Count Nouns

Count Nouns vs. Non-Count Nouns

Count nouns

Can be counted as one or more.

• pen, computer, bottle, spoon, desk, cup, television, chair, shoe, finger, flower, camera, stick, balloon, book, table, comb, etc.

Take an s to form the plural.

• pens, computers, bottles, spoons, desks, cups, televisions, chairs, shoes, fingers, flowers, cameras, sticks, balloons, books, tables, combs, etc.

Work with expressions such as (a few, few, many, some, every, each, these, and the number of).

• a few pens, a few computers, many bottles, some spoons, every desk, each cup, these televisions, the number of chairs, a few shoes, a few fingers, many flowers, some cameras, every stick, each balloon, these books, the number of tables, many combs, etc.

Work with appropriate articles (a, an, or the).

• a pen, the computer, a bottle, the spoon, a desk, the cup, a television, the chair, a shoe, the finger, a flower, the camera, a stick, the balloon, a book, the table, a comb, etc.

Do NOT work with much (for example, you would never say much pens or much computers).

Non-count nouns

Cannot be counted. They usually express a group or a type.

• water, wood, ice, air, oxygen, English, Spanish, traffic, furniture, milk, wine, sugar, rice, meat, flour, soccer, sunshine, etc.

Generally cannot be pluralized.

Work both with and without an article (a, an, or the), depending on the context of the sentence.

• Sugar is sweet.
• The sunshine is beautiful.
• I drink milk.
• He eats rice.
• We watch soccer together.
• The wood is burning.

Work with expressions such as (some, any, enough, this, that, and much).

• We ate some rice and milk.
• I hope to see some sunshine today.
• This meat is good.
• She does not speak much Spanish.
• Do you see any traffic on the road?
• That wine is very old.

Do NOT work with expressions such as (these, those, every, each, either, or neither).
http://www.talkenglish.com/Grammar/count-nouns.aspx

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Grammar - Singular and Plural Nouns

Singular and Plural Nouns

http://www.talkenglish.com/Grammar/singular-plural-nouns.aspx

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Usually, the first page of a grammar book tells you about nouns. Nouns give names of concrete or abstract things in our lives. As babies learn "mom," "dad," or "milk" as their first word, nouns should be the first topic when you study a foreign language.



For the plural form of most nouns, add s.

• bottle – bottles
• cup – cups
• pencil – pencils
• desk – desks
• sticker – stickers
• window – windows

For nouns that end in ch, x, s, or s sounds, add es.

• box – boxes
• watch – watches
• moss – mosses
• bus – buses

For nouns ending in f or fe, change f to v and add es.

• wolf – wolves
• wife – wives
• leaf – leaves
• life – lives

Some nouns have different plural forms.

• child – children
• woman – women
• man – men
• mouse – mice
• goose – geese

Nouns ending in vowels like y or o do not have definite rules.

• baby – babies
• toy – toys
• kidney – kidneys
• potato – potatoes
• memo – memos
• stereo – stereos

A few nouns have the same singular and plural forms.

• sheep – sheep
• deer – deer
• series – series
• species – species

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Grammar - Auxiliary Verbs "Be," "Do," "Have"

Auxiliary Verbs "Be," "Do," "Have"

http://www.talkenglish.com/Grammar/auxiliary-verbs-be-do-have.aspx 

An auxiliary verb helps the main (full) verb and is also called a "helping verb." With auxiliary verbs, you can write sentences in different tenses, moods, or voices. Auxiliary verbs are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought, etc.

• I think I should study harder to master English.
• I am having a cup of coffee.
• You have been practicing hard.
• It was written by a petitioner.
• You may choose what you like.

The verb forms of be, do, and have can be used either as a main (full) verb or an auxiliary verb. The following examples show these verbs used as auxiliary verbs.

1. "Be" as an auxiliary verb

a. Used in progressive sentences:

• I am taking a bath.
• She is preparing dinner for us.
• They have been studying all night.

b. Used in passive sentences:

• I was given a free meal.
• He was seen by fans at the airport.
• This song has been sung by all nations.

2. "Do" as an auxiliary verb

a. Used in negative sentences:

• I do not know the truth.
• She doesn’t agree with me.
• They didn’t arrive here yet.

b. Used in questions:

• Do you want to have another one?
• Did he finish his homework?
• Do we need to keep going straight?

3. "Have" as an auxiliary verb

a. Used in perfect sentences:

• I have been following you for a mile.
• We have done a lot so far.
• She had been queen of the town.

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Grammar - Auxiliary Verbs "Will/Would" and "Shall/Should"

Auxiliary Verbs "Will/Would" and "Shall/Should"

http://www.talkenglish.com/Grammar/auxiliary-verbs-will-would-shall-should.aspx

The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, and must cannot be the main (full) verbs alone. They are used as auxiliary verbs only and always need a main verb to follow.

Will

Used to express desire, preference, choice, or consent:

• I will take this duty.
• Will you stop talking like that?

Used to express the future:

• It will rain tomorrow.
• The news will spread soon.

Used to express capacity or capability:

• This bucket will hold two gallons of water.
• This airplane will take 200 passengers.

Used to express determination, insistence, or persistence:

• I will do it as you say.

Would (past form of will)

Often used in auxiliary functions with rather to express preference:

• I would rather go shopping today.
• We’d rather say something than stay quiet.

Used to express a wish or desire:

• I would like to have one more pencil.

Used to express contingency or possibility:

• If I were you, I would be so happy.

Used to express routine or habitual things:

• Normally, we would work until 6 p.m.

Shall

Mainly used in American English to ask questions politely (it has more usages in British English). For the future tense, will is more frequently used in American English than shall.

• Shall we dance?
• Shall I go now?
• Let’s drink, shall we?

Often used in formal settings to deliver obligation or requirement:

• You shall abide by the law.
• There shall be no trespassing on this property.
• Students shall not enter this room.

Should (past form of shall)

Often used in auxiliary functions to express an opinion, suggestion, preference, or idea:

• You should rest at home today.
• I should take a bus this time.
• He should be more thoughtful in the decision-making process.

Used to express that you wish something had happened but it didn’t or couldn’t (should + have + past participle):

• You should have seen it. It was really beautiful.
• I should have completed it earlier to meet the deadline.
• We should have visited the place on the way.

Used to ask for someone’s opinion:

• What should we do now?
• Should we continue our meeting?
• Should we go this way?
• Where should we go this summer?

Used to say something expected or correct:

• There should be an old city hall building here.
• Everybody should arrive by 6 p.m.
• We should be there this evening.

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Grammar - Auxiliary Verbs "Can/Could" and "May/Might/Must"

Auxiliary Verbs "Can/Could" and "May/Might/Must"

Can

Used to express ability (to be able to do something):

• I can make jewelry.
• He can’t speak French.
• Can you open this jar?

Used to ask for permission:

• Can I use your bathroom?
• Can I leave now?
• Can I raise the volume?

Used to make requests or suggestions:

• Can I have more napkins?
• Can I have the bill?
• You can take this spot if you like.
• You can do whatever you want.

Could (past form of can)

Describes an ability that someone had in the past:

• I could swim when I was young.
• You could see the boat sinking.
• They could tell he was nervous.

Often used in auxiliary functions to express permission politely:

• Could I take this jacket with me?
• You could borrow my umbrella.
• Could you please let me pass you?
• Could I get you more water?

Used to express possibility:

• All of them could ride in the van.
• You could always stay at our house.
• Could it be true?
• This plan could really work out.

May

Used to ask for formal permission:

• May I come in?
• May I say something now?
• May I ask one question?

Used to suggest something that is possible:

• She may agree with this plan.
• They may not be happy about what happened.
• It may shower tonight.

Might (past form of may)

Used to suggest a smaller possibility than may does (actually, might is more common than may in American English):

• He might have finished it.
• I might go see a doctor.
• I might not come this time.
• It might be right.
• You might have lost it.
• The store might have been closed today.

Must

Used to express something formally required or necessary:

• I must complete the project by this week.
• The government must provide health care for everybody.
• Everyone must save the natural resources of the earth.
• The building must have a fire alarm.
• You must answer my question right now.

Used to show that something is very likely:

• He must be a genius.
• You must be joking!
• There must be an accident.
• She must be very tired.

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Grammar - Articles

Indefinite and Definite Articles

http://www.talkenglish.com/Grammar/articles.aspx  

The words a, an, and the are special adjectives called articles.

Indefinite Articles—a, an

an—used before singular count nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or vowel sound:

• an apple, an elephant, an issue, an orange

a—used before singular count nouns beginning with consonants (other than a, e, i, o, u):

• a stamp, a desk, a TV, a cup, a book

Definite Article—the

Can be used before singular and plural, count and non-count nouns

1. Indefinite Article (a, an)

Used before singular nouns that are unspecified:

• a pencil
• an orange

Used before number collectives and some numbers:

• a dozen
• a gallon

Used before a singular noun followed by a restrictive modifier:

• a girl who was wearing a yellow hat

Used with nouns to form adverbial phrases of quantity, amount, or degree:

• I felt a bit depressed.

2. Definite Article (the)

Used to indicate a noun that is definite or has been previously specified in the context:

• Please close the door.
• I like the clothes you gave me.

Used to indicate a noun that is unique:

• Praise the Lord!
• The Columbia River is near here.

Used to designate a natural phenomenon:

• The nights get shorter in the summer.
• The wind is blowing so hard.

Used to refer to a time period:

• I was very naïve in the past.
• This song was very popular in the 1980s.

Used to indicate all the members of a family:

• I invited the Bakers for dinner.
• This medicine was invented by the Smiths. 

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Writing - Punctuation

How to Use English Punctuation Correctly

Part 1 of 8: Using Proper Capitalization

1. Always start a sentence with a capital letter. Unless you're an avant-garde poet, you will need to capitalize the first letter of every sentence without exception. Usually, the capitalized form of a letter is just a bigger version of that letter, though there are exceptions (such as "q" and "Q").

• Here is an example of proper capitalization at the beginning of a sentence:She invited her friend over after school.
  

 

2. Use capital letters to start proper nouns and titles. In addition to starting sentences, capital letters should also be at the start of both proper nouns and titles. Proper nouns are the official names of specific people, places, and things. Titles, which are a type of proper noun, refer to the official names of works of art like books, movies, plays, and so on, and of institutions, geographical areas, and much more. Titles can also be honorifics (Her Majesty, Mr. President, etc.).

• Titles and proper nouns that are more than one word long should have every word capitalized, except for small words and articles like "the," "an," "and," etc. The first word of a title should be capitalized regardless of what it is.
• Here are a few examples of capital letters being used for proper nouns and titles:

  Genghis Khan quickly became the most powerful man in Asia, if not the world.

  In her opinion, Queen Roberta's favorite museum in the world is the Smithsonian, which she visited during her trip to Washington, D.C., last year.

3. Use capital letters for acronyms. An acronym is a word formed from the first letter of every word in a long proper noun or title. Acronyms are frequently used to shorten long proper nouns that would be awkward to reprint in their entirety every time they are mentioned. Sometimes the letters of an acronym are separated by periods, though this is not always the case.

• Here is an example of acronyms made from capital letters:

  The CIA and the NSA are just two of the USA's many intelligence agencies.

Part 2 of 8: Using End-of-Sentence Punctuation Marks

1. Use a period (full stop) to end declarative sentences and statements. Every sentence contains at least one punctuation mark - the one at its end. The most common of these sentence-ending punctuation marks is the period (".", also called "full stop"). This simple dot is used to mark the end of a sentence that is declarative. The majority of sentences are declarative - any sentence that states a fact, explains an idea, or describes an idea, for instance, is declarative.

• Here is an example of a period (full stop) being used correctly at the end of a sentence:

  The accessibility of the computer has increased tremendously over the past several years.

2. Use a question mark to end questions. The question mark ( "?" ), used at the end of a sentence, denotes that the sentence was an interrogative sentence - basically, a question. Use this punctuation mark at the end of all your questions, queries, and inquiries.

• Here is an example of a question mark being used correctly at the end of a sentence:

  What has humanity done about the growing concern of global warming?

3. Use an exclamation point to end exclamatory sentences. The exclamation point ("!", also called an "exclamation mark" or "shout mark") suggests excitement or strong emphasis in the preceding sentence. The exclamation point is also used, appropriately, to end exclamations - short expressions of intense emotion that are often only one word long.

• Here are two examples of an exclamation point being used correctly at the end of a sentence:

  I can't believe how difficult the exam was!

  Eek! You scared me!

Part 3 of 8: Using Commas

1. Use a comma to indicate a break or pause within a sentence. The comma (",") is a very versatile punctuation mark - there are dozens of instances that might require you to use a comma in your writing. Perhaps the most frequent use of commas is to imply an appositive - a break within a sentence that supplements and adds information to the subject.

• Here is an example of commas being used to create a break in a sentence:

  Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is the developer of the operating system known as Windows.

 

2. Use the comma when listing items in a series. Another very common use for commas is to separate items that are being listed in sequence. Usually, commas are written between each of the items and between the second-to-last item and a conjunction.

• However, many writers omit the comma before the conjunction (called a Serial comma or "Oxford comma") as conjunctions like "and" can usually make the meaning of the list clear with or without the preceding comma.
• Here are two examples of commas used in listed series of items - one with an Oxford Comma and one without.

  The fruit basket contained apples, bananas, and oranges.

  The computer store was filled with video games, computer hardware and other electronic paraphernalia.

3. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives describing a noun. Sometimes, multiple adjectives are used in a row to describe a single subject using multiple qualities. This usage of commas is somewhat similar to using commas to separate items in a series, with one exception - it is incorrect to place a comma after the final adjective.

• Here are examples of correct and incorrect comma usage when it comes to separating adjectives:

  CORRECT - The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.

  INCORRECT - The powerful, resonating, sound caught our attention.

4. Use a comma to separate one geographical area from another that is located inside. Specific geographical places or areas are usually named by starting with the most precise location name and then proceeding outwards. For instance, you might refer to a specific city by naming the city itself, followed by the state it is in, followed by the country, and so on. Each geographic descriptor is followed by a comma. Note that commas are also used after the final geographical area if the sentence continues.

• Here are two examples of correct comma usage when it comes to naming geographical areas:

  I am originally from Hola, Tana River County, Kenya.

  Los Angeles, CA, is one of the largest cities in the United States.

5. Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase from the rest of the sentence. An introductory phrase (which is usually one or more prepositional phrases) briefly introduces the sentence and provides context, but is not part of the sentence's subject or predicate. Therefore, it should be separated from the main clause by a comma.

• Here are two examples of sentences with introductory phrases separated from the rest of the sentence by commas:

  After the show, John and I went out to dinner.

  On the back of my couch, my cat's claws have slowly been carving a large hole.

6. Use the comma to separate two independent clauses. Having two independent clauses in a sentence simply means that you can split the sentence into two separate ones while preserving the original meaning. If your sentence contains two independent clauses that are separated by a conjunction (such as and, as, but, for, nor, so, or yet), place a comma before the conjunction.

• Here are two examples of sentences containing independent clauses:

  Ryan went to the beach yesterday, but he forgot his sunscreen.

  Water bills usually rise during the summer, as people are thirstier during hot and humid days.

7. Use a comma when making a direct address. When calling one's attention by saying their name at the start of a sentence, separate the person's name and the rest of the statement with a comma. Note that this comma is somewhat rare to encounter in writing because this is something that is normally only done while speaking. In writing, it's more common for the writer to indicate who is speaking to whom via other methods.

• Here is an example of a direct address:

  Amber, could you come here for a moment?

8. Use a comma to separate direct quotations from the sentence introducing them. A comma should come after the last word before a quotation that is being introduced with via context or description provided by the rest of the sentence. On the other hand, it is not necessary to use a comma for an indirect quote - in other words, if you are paraphrasing a quote's meaning without recreating the precise wordage. Additionally, a comma is usually not necessary if you are not quoting an entire statement, but only a few words from it.

• Here is an example of a direct quotation that requires a comma:

  While I was at his house, John asked, "Do you want anything to eat?"

• Here is an example of an indirect quotation that does not require a comma:

  While I was at his house, John asked me if I wanted anything to eat.

• Here is an example of a partial direct quotation, which, due to its brevity and its use within the sentence, doesn't require a comma:

  According to the client, the lawyer was "lazy and incompetent."

Part 4 of 8: Using Colons and Semicolons

1. Use a semicolon to separate two related but independent clauses. The proper use of a semicolon is similar, but not identical, to that of a period. The semicolon marks the end of one independent clause and the start of another within a single sentence. Note that, if the two clauses are very wordy or complex, it is better to use a period (full stop) instead.

• Here's an example of a semicolon being used correctly:

  People continue to worry about the future; our failure to conserve resources has put the world at risk.

2. Use a semicolon to separate a complex series of items. Usually, the items in a written list are separated by commas, but for lists in which one or more items require comment or explanation, semicolons can be used in conjunction with commas to keep the reader from becoming confused. Use semicolons to separate items and their explanations within the list from one another - to separate an item from its own explanation and vice versa, use a comma.

• Here's an example of semicolons being used correctly in a list whose meaning might otherwise be ambiguous:

  I went to the show with Jake, my close friend; his friend, Jane; and her best friend, Jenna.

3. Use the colon to introduce a list. Be careful, however, not to use a colon when stating an idea that requires naming a series of items. The two are similar, but distinct. Usually, the words following or "below" suggest the use of a colon. Use only after a full sentence which ends in a noun.

• Here's an example of a colon being used correctly in this fashion:

  The professor has given me three options: to retake the exam, to accept the extra credit assignment, or to fail the class.

• Here, on the other hand, is an incorrect example:

  The Easter basket contained: Easter eggs, chocolate rabbits, and other candy.

4. Use a colon to introduce a new concept or example. Colons can also be used after a descriptive phrase or explanation to imply that the next piece of information will be the thing being described or explained. It can help to think of this as introducing a list containing only one item.

• Here's an example of a colon being used properly in this way:

  There's only one person old enough to remember that wedding: grandma.

5. Use a colon to separate parts of a title. Some works of art, particularly books and movies, can have long, subdivided titles. In these cases, each title after the first is called a subtitle. Use colons at the end of each "part" of the title to separate each subtitle from the rest of the title.

• Here's an example of colons being used in this way to subdivide two lengthy titles:

  Fred's favorite movie was The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, though Stacy preferred its sequel, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers.

Part 5 of 8: Using Hyphens and Dashes

1. Use a hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to make the word easier to read. For instance, if you were to leave the hyphen out of a word like re-examine, it would be reexamine, which confuse readers. However, some words do not require a hyphen to separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo. Let a dictionary be your guide for when to use the hyphen after a prefix.

• Here's an example of good hyphen usage:

  Cara is his ex-girlfriend.

2. Use hyphens when creating compound words from several smaller words. If you've ever written about anything that's gold-plated, radar-equipped, or one-size-fits-all, you've used a hyphen in this way. To build a long, descriptive word out of two or more component words, use hyphens to separate the "pieces" from each other.

• Here's an example of a hyphen used to build a compound word:

  The up-to-date newspaper reporters were quick to jump on the latest scandal.

3. Use a hyphen when writing numbers out as words. Separate the two words of any number under one hundred with a hyphen. Be careful with spelling out numbers above one hundred — if the number is used as an adjective, it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated (This is the one-hundredth episode.). Otherwise, a hyphen should only occur if a number lower than 100 occurs within the larger number, e.g., He lived to be one hundred twenty-one.

• Don't use "and" when writing numbers, as in "The amount is one hundred and eighty". This is a common error in the US and Canada, where the "and" is usually omitted. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world, however, the "and" can be included.
• Here are two examples of hyphens being used in numbers below and above one hundred, respectively:

  There are fifty-two playing cards in a deck.

  The packaging advertised one thousand two hundred twenty-four firecrackers, but it only contained one thousand.

4. Use a dash when making a brief interruption within a statement. The dash ("--" or "—") is slightly longer than the hyphen and is used to convey a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification within a sentence. It can also be used to add a parenthetical statement, such as for further clarification, but this should still be relevant to the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses. Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still flow naturally.

• To judge whether a dash is appropriate, try to remove the statement within the dash from the sentence. If the sentence appears disjointed or does not make sense, then you may need to revise, rather than using the dash.
• There should be spaces before and after the dash in British English.
• Here are two examples of proper dash usage:

  An introductory clause is a brief phrase that comes — yes, you guessed it — at the beginning of a sentence.

  This is the end of our sentence — or so we thought.

5. Use a hyphen to split a word between two lines. Though this use is not as common today, the hyphen ("-") was once a common punctuation mark on typewriters, used when a long word had to be split between two lines. This system is still seen in some books, though computer word processing programs have made this rarer.

• Here's an example of a hyphen being used to split a word that's cut into two pieces by a line break:

  No matter what else he tried, he just couldn't get the novel's elect- -rifying surprise ending out of his head.

Part 6 of 8: Using Apostrophes

1. Use the apostrophe together with the letter s to indicate possession. The apostrophe (" ' ") has a variety of uses for conveying the concept of possession. Be aware of the difference in using an apostrophe with singular or plural nouns. A singular noun will use the apostrophe before the "s" ('s), whereas the plural version of that singular noun will use the apostrophe after the "s" (s'). This use comes with several stipulations - see below.

• Be mindful of nouns that are always considered to be plural, such as children and people — here, you should use 's even though the nouns are plural.
• Also be aware of pronouns that are already possessive and do not require apostrophes, such as hers and its (it's is used only for the contractions of it is and it has). Their is possessive without apostrophe or s, except as a predicate adjective, where it becomes theirs.
• Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a singular noun:

  The hamster's water tube needs to be refilled.

• Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a plural noun:

  In the pet store, the hamsters' bedding needed to be changed.

• Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a plural noun that doesn't end with "s":

  These children's test scores are the highest in the nation.

2. Use the apostrophe to combine two words to make a contraction. Contractions are shortened combinations of two words. For example, cannot becomes can't, "it is" becomes "it's", you are becomes you're, and they have becomes they've. In every contraction, the apostrophe replaces the letters that are omitted from one or both words.

• Be sure to use the possessive pronoun your and the contraction you're for their distinct, separate uses — it is one of the most common grammar mistakes to confuse them!
• Here is an example of apostrophes used for a contraction of it is and a singular noun with possession, while correctly being omitted for possessive pronouns (hers, theirs, its):

  Friends of hers explained that it's her idea, not theirs, to refill the hamster's water tube and change its bedding.

3. Use the single quotation mark within a regular quotation to indicate a quotation within a quotation. Single quotation marks, which look almost identical to apostrophes, are used to separate quotations from other quotations which surround them. Use these carefully - always make sure every quotation mark you use to start a quote in your sentence is paired with a corresponding one at the end of the quote.

• Here is an example of a quote-within-a-quote:

  Ali said, "Anna told me, 'I wasn't sure if you wanted to come!'"

4. Don't use apostrophes with s to make a plural noun from a singular. This is a very common mistake and should be avoided. Remember that apostrophes are used to show possession - not that there are more than one of something.

• Here are examples of correct and incorrect apostrophe usage:

  CORRECT - apple → apples

  INCORRECT - apple → apple's

Part 7 of 8: Using Slashes

1. Use the slash to separate and and or, when appropriate. Slashes ( " / " ) in phrases like and/or suggests the options described are not mutually exclusive. Here is an example of good and/or usage: To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate

2. Use the slash when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Slashes are especially useful when it is impractical to recreate the original formatting of a poem or song. When using slashes in this way, be sure to add spaces between your slashes.

• Here is an example of slashes used to mark line breaks in a song:

  Row, row, row your boat / Gently down the stream. / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / Life is but a dream.

3. Also use the slash to replace the word and to join two nouns. By replacing and with a slash, you suggest that there is equal importance to both options listed. Use these replacements in moderation to place greater emphasis where and may not do so, as well as to avoid confusing the reader. You can also do the same for or, as in his/her. However, you should not use the slash to separate independent clauses.

• CORRECT
  "The student and part-time employee has very little free time." →
  "The student/part-time employee has very little free time."

  INCORRECT
  "Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" →
  "Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall?"

Part 8 of 8: Using Miscellaneous Punctuation Marks

1. Use the double quotation mark ( " ) to enclose a direct quotation, whether spoke by a person or taken from a written source. Generally speaking, quotation marks are used to denote that the information is a quote. In other words, whether you're recreating someone's verbal speech or simply re-writing something that they wrote elsewhere, you'll use quotation marks.

• "I can't wait to see him perform!" John exclaimed.

  According to the article, the value of the dollar in developing nations is "strongly influenced by its aesthetic value, rather than its face value."

2. Use parentheses to clarify. Parentheses are often used to explain something that can't be deduced from the rest of the sentence. When using parentheses ( " ( ) " ), be sure to include the sentence's period after the closing parenthesis, except in the case that an entire sentence is within parentheses. Note that sometimes parentheses and commas can be used interchangeably.

• Here is an example of parentheses used for clarification:

  Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.

3. Use parentheses to denote an afterthought. Parentheses can also be used to contain information that is supplementary to the sentence they are part of. In this case, the line between when to use parentheses and when it is best to start a new sentence can be somewhat murky. A good general rule is to use parentheses for short additions and quips, not complex ideas.

• Here is an example of parentheses used for an afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parentheses — not before the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable here, while a period or a semicolon may work:

  You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).

4. Use parentheses for personal comments. One additional usage of parentheses is to contain the writer's direct comments to the reader. Usually, the comments contained in parentheses refer to the preceding sentence. As above, the shorter and simpler the better. If you have to expound at great length or reference several disparate pieces of your writing, it's usually best to start a new sentence.

• Here is an example of parentheses used for a personal comment: Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always interchangeable (I disagree)

5. Use brackets to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You can also use brackets ( " [ ] " ) to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it appeals to your own writing. Brackets are often used to encompass the word "sic" (Latin for thus), suggesting that the previous word or phrase was written "as is", with the error intended to be displayed.

• Here is an example of brackets used for clarity in a direct quote. Note that, in this case, "It was absolutely devastating!", for instance, might be the actual quote:

  "[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith, a local bystander at the scene of the incident.

6. Use braces to denote a numeric set in mathematics. Though generally uncommon, braces ( " { } " ) can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal, independent choices.

• Here are two examples of brace usage - note that the second is exceedingly rare:

  The set of numbers in this problem are: { 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }

  Choose your favorite utensil { fork, knife, spoon } and bring it to me.

http://www.wikihow.com/Use-English-Punctuation-Correctly

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Grammar - Prepositions: Locators in Time and Place

Prepositions: Locators in Time and Place

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened.
Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it.

You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.

All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction].

Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time — "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." — but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun — "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" — but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.

You may have learned that ending a sentence with a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't, and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is not greatly improved with "Indicate from which book you are quoting." Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is a latecomer to the rules of writing. Those who dislike the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder: "That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." We should also remember the child's complaint: "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"

Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for students for whom English is a second language? We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television. For native speakers, these little words present little difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage notes. To address all the potential difficulties with prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the only way English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good dictionary close at hand (to hand?) is an important first step.

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.

We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in

We use at for specific addresses.
Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.

And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition
IN (the) bed* the bedroom the car (the) class* the library* school*	AT class* home the library* the office school* work	ON the bed* the ceiling the floor the horse the plane the train	NO PREPOSITION downstairs downtown inside outside upstairs uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place.
They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.

Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.

With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.

Prepositions of Time: for and since

We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.

Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS
approval of awareness of belief in concern for confusion about desire for	fondness for grasp of hatred of hope for interest in love of	need for participation in reason for respect for success in understanding of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS
afraid of angry at aware of capable of careless about familiar with	fond of happy about interested in jealous of made of married to	proud of similar to sorry for sure of tired of worried about

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS
apologize for ask about ask for belong to bring up care for find out	give up grow up look for look forward to look up make up pay for	prepare for study for talk about think about trust in work for worry about

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.

Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions

• agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
• argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
• compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
• correspond to a thing, with a person
• differ from an unlike thing, with a person
• live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people

Unnecessary Prepositions

In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.

• She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
• The book fell off of the desk.
• He threw the book out of the window.
• She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
• Where did they go to?
• Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
• Where is your college at?

Prepositions in Parallel Form

When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.

However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/prepositions.htm 

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